Urology
Volume 73, Issue 5, Supplement , Pages S21-S27 , May 2009

Risk of Developing Prostate Cancer in the Future: Overview of Prognostic Biomarkers

  • Neil E. Fleshner

      Affiliations

    • Division of Urology, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
    • Department of Surgery, Division of Urology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
    • Corresponding Author InformationReprint requests: Neil Fleshner, M.D., Division of Urology, University Health Network, 610 University Avenue, Room 3-130, Toronto, ON M5G 2M9 Canada
  • ,
  • Nathan Lawrentschuk

      Affiliations

    • Division of Urology, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
    • Department of Surgery, Division of Urology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Received 2 February 2009 ,Accepted 24 February 2009.

References 

  1. Jemal A, Siegel R, Ward E, et al. Cancer statistics, 2008. CA Cancer J Clin. 2008;58:71–96
  2. Sanda MG, Dunn RL, Michalski J, et al. Quality of life and satisfaction with outcome among prostate-cancer survivors. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:1250–1261
  3. Wilson LS, Tesoro R, Elkin EP, et al. Cumulative cost pattern comparison of prostate cancer treatments. Cancer. 2007;109:518–527
  4. Grover SA, Dorais M, Paradis G, et al. Lipid screening to prevent coronary artery disease: a quantitative evaluation of evolving guidelines. Can Med Assoc J. 2000;163:1263–1269
  5. National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) final report. Circulation. 2002;106:3143–3421
  6. Rosario DJ, Lane JA, Metcalfe C, et al. Contribution of a single repeat PSA test to prostate cancer risk assessment: experience from the ProtecT Study. Eur Urol. 2008;53:777–784
  7. Canby-Hagino E, Hernandez J, Brand TC, et al. Prostate cancer risk with positive family history, normal prostate examination findings, and PSA less than 4.0 ng/mL. Urology. 2007;70:748–752
  8. Carter HB, Pearson JD, Metter EJ, et al. Longitudinal evaluation of prostate-specific antigen levels in men with and without prostate disease. JAMA. 1992;267:2215–2220
  9. Thompson IM, Ankerst DP, Chi C, et al. Assessing prostate cancer risk: results from the Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2006;98:529–534
  10. Gann PH, Hennekens CH, Stampfer MJ. A prospective evaluation of plasma prostate-specific antigen for detection of prostatic cancer. JAMA. 1995;273:289–294
  11. Fang J, Metter EJ, Landis P, et al. Low levels of prostate-specific antigen predict long-term risk of prostate cancer: results from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Urology. 2001;58:411–416
  12. Schröder FH, Roobol MJ, Andriole GL, et al. Defining increased future risk for prostate cancer: evidence from a population based screening cohort. J Urol. 2009;181:69–74
  13. Grubb RL, Pinsky PF, Greenlee RT, et al. Prostate cancer screening in the Prostate, Lung, Colorectal and Ovarian cancer screening trial: update on findings from the initial four rounds of screening in a randomized trial. BJU Int. 2008;102:1524–1530
  14. Lilja H, Ulmert D, Björk T, et al. Long-term prediction of prostate cancer up to 25 years before diagnosis of prostate cancer using prostate kallikreins measured at age 44-50 years. J Clin Oncol. 2007;25:431–436
  15. Catalona WJ. Prostate cancer screening. BJU Int. 2004;94:964–966
  16. Lilja H, Cronin A, Scardino P, et al. Poster 589: a single PSA predicts prostate cancer up to 30 years subsequently, even in men below age 40. Presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Urological Association, May 17-22, 2008, Orlando, FL.
  17. Vickers AJ, Ulmert D, Serio AM, et al. The predictive value of prostate cancer biomarkers depends on age and time to diagnosis: towards a biologically-based screening strategy. Int J Cancer. 2007;121:2212–2217
  18. Ulmert D, Cronin AM, Bjork T, et al. Prostate-specific antigen at or before age 50 as a predictor of advanced prostate cancer diagnosed up to 25 years later: a case-control study. BMC Med. 2008;6:6–13
  19. Thompson IM, Pauler DK, Goodman PJ, et al. Prevalence of prostate cancer among men with a prostate-specific antigen level ≤4.0 ng per milliliter. N Engl J Med. 2004;350:2239–2246
  20. Catalona WJ, Loeb S, Han M. Viewpoint: expanding prostate cancer screening. Ann Intern Med. 2006;144:441–443
  21. Ries L, Melbert D, Drapcho M, et al. SEER cancer statistics review (Based on November 2007 SEER data submission, posted to SEER Web site). http://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975_2005/2008;Accessed May 30, 2008
  22. Partin AW, Yoo J, Carter HB, et al. The use of prostate specific antigen, clinical stage and Gleason score to predict pathological stage in men with localized prostate cancer. J Urol. 1993;150:110–114
  23. American Urological Association (AUA). Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) best practice policy. Oncology (Williston Park). 2000;4:267–280
  24. Morgan TO, Jacobsen SJ, McCarthy WF, et al. Age-specific reference ranges for prostate-specific antigen in black men. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:304–310
  25. Al-Azab R, Toi A, Lockwood G, et al. Prostate volume is strongest predictor of cancer diagnosis at transrectal ultrasound-guided prostate biopsy with prostate-specific antigen values between 2.0 and 9.0 ng/mL. Urology. 2007;69:103–107
  26. Briganti A, Chun FK, Suardi N, et al. Prostate volume and adverse prostate cancer features: fact not artifact. Eur J Cancer. 2007;43:2669–2677
  27. Sajadi KP, Kim T, Terris MK, et al. High yield of saturation prostate biopsy for patients with previous negative biopsies and small prostates. Urology. 2007;70:691–695
  28. Loeb S, Kettermann A, Ferrucci L, et al. PSA doubling time versus PSA velocity to predict high-risk prostate cancer: data from the Baltimore Longitudinal Study of Aging. Eur Urol. 2008;54:1073–1080
  29. Chen YC, Page JH, Chen R, et al. Family history of prostate and breast cancer and the risk of prostate cancer in the PSA era. Prostate. 2008;68:1582–1591
  30. Lichtenstein P, Holm NV, Verkasalo PK, et al. Environmental and heritable factors in the causation of cancer—analyses of cohorts of twins from Sweden, Denmark, and Finland. N Engl J Med. 2000;343:78–85
  31. Zheng SL, Sun J, Wiklund F, et al. Cumulative association of five genetic variants with prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:910–919
  32. Sun J, Chang BL, Isaacs SD, et al. Cumulative effect of five genetic variants on prostate cancer risk in multiple study populations. Prostate. 2008;68:1257–1262
  33. Haiman CA, Patterson N, Freedman ML, et al. Multiple regions within 8q24 independently affect risk for prostate cancer. Nat Genet. 2007;39:638–644
  34. Lefkowitz GK, Taneja SS, Brown J, et al. Follow up interval prostate biopsy 3 years after diagnosis of high grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia is associated with high likelihood of prostate cancer, independent of change in prostate specific antigen levels. J Urol. 2002;168(4 Pt. 1):1415–1418
  35. Keetch DW, Humphrey P, Stahl D, et al. Morphometric analysis and clinical follow up of isolated prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia in needle biopsy of the prostate. J Urol. 1995;154(2 Pt. 1):347–351
  36. Bensalah K, Lotan Y, Karam JA, et al. New circulating biomarkers for prostate cancer. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 2008;11:112–120
  37. Ivanovic V, Melman A, vis-Joseph B, et al. Elevated plasma levels of TGF-β1 in patients with invasive prostate cancer. Nat Med. 1995;1:282–284
  38. Perry KT, Anthony CT, Case T, et al. Transforming growth factor beta as a clinical biomarker for prostate cancer. Urology. 1997;49:151–155
  39. Wolff JM, Fandel TH, Borchers H, et al. Serum concentrations of transforming growth factor-β1 in patients with benign and malignant prostatic diseases. Anticancer Res. 1999;19(suppl 4A):2657–2659
  40. Michalaki V, Syrigos K, Charles P, et al. Serum levels of IL-6 and TNF-α correlate with clinicopathological features and patient survival in patients with prostate cancer. Br J Cancer. 2004;90:2312–2316
  41. Nakashima J, Tachibana M, Horiguchi Y, et al. Serum interleukin 6 as a prognostic factor in patients with prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res. 2000;6:2702–2706
  42. Nakanishi H, Groskopf J, Fritsche HA, et al. PCA3 molecular urine assay correlates with prostate cancer tumor volume: Implication in selecting candidates for active surveillance. J Urol. 2008;179:1804–1809
  43. Haese A, de la Taille A, van Poppel H, et al. Clinical utility of the PCA3 urine assay in European men scheduled for repeat biopsy. Eur Urol. 2008;54:1081–1088
  44. Giri VN, Beebe-Dimmer J, Buyyounouski M, et al. Prostate cancer risk assessment program: a 10-year update of cancer detection. J Urol. 2007;178:1920–1924
  45. Friedenson B. BRCA1 and BRCA2 pathways and the risk of cancers other than breast or ovarian. MedGenMed. 2005;7:60
  46. Kirchhoff T, Kauff ND, Mitra N. BRCA mutations and risk of prostate cancer in Ashkenazi Jews. Clin Cancer Res. 2004;10:2918–2921
  47. Leman ES, Cannon GW, Trock BJ, et al. EPCA-2: a highly specific serum marker for prostate cancer. Urology. 2007;69:714–720
  48. Leman E, Magheli A, Cannon GW. Analysis of a second EPCA-2 epitope as a serum test for prostate cancer (abstract). J Urol. 2008;179:704

 N. E. Fleshner serves as a consultant to AstraZeneca, GlaxoSmithKline, Merck, Sanofi-Aventis, Novartis, and Pfizer; he has received grant support for clinical trials from AstraZeneca, GlaxoSmithKline, and Sanofi-Aventis. N. Lawrentschuk has no conflicts to report.

PII: S0090-4295(09)00274-X

doi: 10.1016/j.urology.2009.02.022

Urology
Volume 73, Issue 5, Supplement , Pages S21-S27 , May 2009